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Private Prosecution - Prosecutorial Discretion (3)

. R v Anderson

In R v Anderson (SCC, 2014) the Supreme Court of Canada took the oppourtunity to expound on judicial review available against the Crown with respect to prosecutorial discretion (and abuse of process, below). It held that while all Crown decisions are reviewable for abuse of process, prosecutorial decisions are only reviewable for abuse of process:

[36] All Crown decision making is reviewable for abuse of process. However, as I will explain, exercises of prosecutorial discretion are only reviewable for abuse of process. In contrast, tactics and conduct before the court are subject to a wider range of review. The court may exercise its inherent jurisdiction to control its own processes even in the absence of abuse of process.

(a) Prosecutorial Discretion

[37] This Court has repeatedly affirmed that prosecutorial discretion is a necessary part of a properly functioning criminal justice system: Beare, at p. 410; R. v. T. (V.), 1992 CanLII 88 (SCC), [1992] 1 S.C.R. 749, at pp. 758-62; R. v. Cook, 1997 CanLII 392 (SCC), [1997] 1 S.C.R. 1113, at para. 19. In Miazga v. Kvello Estate, 2009 SCC 51 (CanLII), [2009] 3 S.C.R. 339, at para. 47, the fundamental importance of prosecutorial discretion was said to lie, “not in protecting the interests of individual Crown attorneys, but in advancing the public interest by enabling prosecutors to make discretionary decisions in fulfilment of their professional obligations without fear of judicial or political interference, thus fulfilling their quasi-judicial role as ‘ministers of justice’”. More recently, in Sriskandarajah v. United States of America, 2012 SCC 70 (CanLII), [2012] 3 S.C.R. 609, at para. 27, this Court observed that “[n]ot only does prosecutorial discretion accord with the principles of fundamental justice — it constitutes an indispensable device for the effective enforcement of the criminal law”.

[38] Unfortunately, subsequent to this Court’s decision in Krieger v. Law Society of Alberta, 2002 SCC 65 (CanLII), [2002] 3 S.C.R. 372, confusion has arisen as to what is meant by “prosecutorial discretion” and the law has become cloudy. The present appeal provides an opportunity for clarification.

[39] In Krieger, this Court provided the following description of prosecutorial discretion:

“Prosecutorial discretion” is a term of art. It does not simply refer to any discretionary decision made by a Crown prosecutor. Prosecutorial discretion refers to the use of those powers that constitute the core of the Attorney General’s office and which are protected from the influence of improper political and other vitiating factors by the principle of independence. [para. 43]

[40] The Court went on to provide the following examples of prosecutorial discretion: whether to bring the prosecution of a charge laid by police; whether to enter a stay of proceedings in either a private or public prosecution; whether to accept a guilty plea to a lesser charge; whether to withdraw from criminal proceedings altogether; and whether to take control of a private prosecution (para. 46). The Court continued:

Significantly, what is common to the various elements of prosecutorial discretion is that they involve the ultimate decisions as to whether a prosecution should be brought, continued or ceased, and what the prosecution ought to be for. Put differently, prosecutorial discretion refers to decisions regarding the nature and extent of the prosecution and the Attorney General’s participation in it. Decisions that do not go to the nature and extent of the prosecution, i.e., the decisions that govern a Crown prosecutor’s tactics or conduct before the court, do not fall within the scope of prosecutorial discretion. Rather, such decisions are governed by the inherent jurisdiction of the court to control its own processes once the Attorney General has elected to enter into that forum. [Emphasis added; emphasis in original deleted; para. 47.]

[41] Since Krieger, courts have struggled with the distinction between prosecutorial discretion, and tactics and conduct. The use of the word “core” in Krieger has led to a narrow definition of prosecutorial discretion, notwithstanding the expansive language used in Krieger to define the term, namely: “. . . decisions regarding the nature and extent of the prosecution and the Attorney General’s participation in it” (para. 47). Difficulty in defining the term has also led to confusion regarding the standard of review by which particular Crown decisions are to be assessed.

[42] The current appeal presents a good illustration of both problems. As noted earlier, the Newfoundland and Labrador Court of Appeal split on the issue of how to characterize the Crown’s decision to tender the Notice. Welsh J.A. held that it was a matter of “core” prosecutorial discretion, whereas Green C.J.N.L. and Rowe J.A. (following R. v. Gill, 2012 ONCA 607 (CanLII), 112 O.R. (3d) 423, at paras. 54-56), considered it to be a tactical decision and thus “outside [the] core” (para. 49).

[43] The court also diverged on the applicable standard of review. Welsh J.A. held that the distinction between core decisions and decisions falling outside the core was of no consequence as both types of decisions were reviewable on the same standard — the standard articulated in Gill, in which the Ontario Court of Appeal held that the decision to tender the Notice was reviewable if it (1) undermined the integrity of the administration of justice; (2) operated in a manner that rendered the sentencing proceedings fundamentally unfair; (3) was arbitrary; or (4) resulted in a limit on the accused’s liberty that was grossly disproportionate to the state interest in pursuing a particular course of action (Gill, at para. 59). Green C.J.N.L. and Rowe J.A. disagreed. In their view, tactical decisions (decisions “outside the core”) were reviewable according to the Gill standard, whereas “core” prosecutorial discretion was reviewable solely for abuse of process. The diverging views present in this case, and in many others, demonstrate the unsatisfactory state of the law.

[44] In an effort to clarify, I think we should start by recognizing that the term “prosecutorial discretion” is an expansive term that covers all “decisions regarding the nature and extent of the prosecution and the Attorney General’s participation in it” (Krieger, at para. 47). As this Court has repeatedly noted, “[p]rosecutorial discretion refers to the discretion exercised by the Attorney-General in matters within his authority in relation to the prosecution of criminal offences” (Krieger, at para. 44, citing Power, at p. 622, quoting D. Vanek, “Prosecutorial Discretion” (1988), 30 Crim. L.Q. 219, at p. 219 (emphasis added)). While it is likely impossible to create an exhaustive list of the decisions that fall within the nature and extent of a prosecution, further examples to those in Krieger include: the decision to repudiate a plea agreement (as in R. v. Nixon, 2011 SCC 34 (CanLII), [2011] 2 S.C.R. 566); the decision to pursue a dangerous offender application; the decision to prefer a direct indictment; the decision to charge multiple offences; the decision to negotiate a plea; the decision to proceed summarily or by indictment; and the decision to initiate an appeal. All pertain to the nature and extent of the prosecution. As can be seen, many stem from the provisions of the Code itself, including the decision in this case to tender the Notice.

[45] In sum, prosecutorial discretion applies to a wide range of prosecutorial decision making. That said, care must be taken to distinguish matters of prosecutorial discretion from constitutional obligations. The distinction between prosecutorial discretion and the constitutional obligations of the Crown was made in Krieger, where the prosecutor’s duty to disclose relevant evidence to the accused was at issue:

In Stinchcombe, supra, the Court held that the Crown has an obligation to disclose all relevant information to the defence. While the Crown Attorney retains the discretion not to disclose irrelevant information, disclosure of relevant evidence is not, therefore, a matter of prosecutorial discretion but, rather, is a prosecutorial duty. [Emphasis added; para. 54.]

Manifestly, the Crown possesses no discretion to breach the Charter rights of an accused. In other words, prosecutorial discretion provides no shield to a Crown prosecutor who has failed to fulfill his or her constitutional obligations such as the duty to provide proper disclosure to the defence.

(i) The Standard of Review for Prosecutorial Discretion

[46] The many decisions that Crown prosecutors are called upon to make in the exercise of their prosecutorial discretion must not be subjected to routine second-guessing by the courts. The courts have long recognized that decisions involving prosecutorial discretion are unlike other decisions made by the executive: see M. Code, “Judicial Review of Prosecutorial Decisions: A Short History of Costs and Benefits, in Response to Justice Rosenberg” (2009), 34 Queen’s L.J. 863, at p. 867. Judicial non-interference with prosecutorial discretion has been referred to as a “matter of principle based on the doctrine of separation of powers as well as a matter of policy founded on the efficiency of the system of criminal justice” which also recognizes that prosecutorial discretion is “especially ill-suited to judicial review”: Power, at p. 623. In Krieger, the Court discussed the separation of powers doctrine as a basis for judicial deference to prosecutorial discretion:

In our theory of government, it is the sovereign who holds the power to prosecute his or her subjects. A decision of the Attorney General, or of his or her agents, within the authority delegated to him or her by the sovereign is not subject to interference by other arms of government. An exercise of prosecutorial discretion will, therefore, be treated with deference by the courts and by other members of the executive . . . . [para. 45]

[47] The Court also noted the more practical problems associated with regular review of prosecutorial discretion:

The quasi-judicial function of the Attorney General cannot be subjected to interference from parties who are not as competent to consider the various factors involved in making a decision to prosecute. To subject such decisions to political interference, or to judicial supervision, could erode the integrity of our system of prosecution. [para. 32]

[48] Manifestly, prosecutorial discretion is entitled to considerable deference. It is not, however, immune from all judicial oversight. This Court has repeatedly affirmed that prosecutorial discretion is reviewable for abuse of process: Krieger, at para. 32; Nixon, at para. 31; Miazga, at para. 46.

[49] The jurisprudence pertaining to the review of prosecutorial discretion has employed a range of terminology to describe the type of prosecutorial conduct that constitutes abuse of process. In Krieger, this Court used the term “flagrant impropriety” (para. 49). In Nixon, the Court held that the abuse of process doctrine is available where there is evidence that the Crown’s decision “undermines the integrity of the judicial process” or “results in trial unfairness” (para. 64). The Court also referred to “improper motive[s]” and “bad faith” in its discussion (para. 68).

[50] Regardless of the precise language used, the key point is this: abuse of process refers to Crown conduct that is egregious and seriously compromises trial fairness and/or the integrity of the justice system. Crown decisions motivated by prejudice against Aboriginal persons would certainly meet this standard.

[51] In sum, prosecutorial discretion is reviewable solely for abuse of process. The Gill test applied by the Newfoundland and Labrador Court of Appeal was developed at a time when courts were struggling with the post-Krieger “core” versus “outside the core” dichotomy. To the extent the Gill test suggests that conduct falling short of abuse of process may form a basis for reviewing prosecutorial discretion, respectfully, it should not be followed.

(ii) The Threshold Evidentiary Burden

[52] The burden of proof for establishing abuse of process lies on the claimant, who must prove it on a balance of probabilities: Cook, at para. 62; R. v. O’Connor, 1995 CanLII 51 (SCC), [1995] 4 S.C.R. 411, at para. 69, per L’Heureux-Dubé J.; R. v. Jolivet, 2000 SCC 29 (CanLII), [2000] 1 S.C.R. 751, at para. 19. However, given the unique nature of prosecutorial discretion — specifically, the fact that the Crown will typically (if not always) be the only party who will know why a particular decision was made ― this Court in Nixon recognized that where prosecutorial discretion is challenged, the Crown may be required to provide reasons justifying its decision where the claimant establishes a proper evidentiary foundation: para. 60.

[53] In Nixon, this Court noted the following reasons as to why there must be a “proper evidentiary foundation” before the abuse of process claim should proceed:

. . . mandating a preliminary determination on the utility of a Charter-based inquiry is not new: R. v. Pires, 2005 SCC 66 (CanLII), [2005] 3 S.C.R. 343. Similar thresholds are also imposed in other areas of the criminal law, they are not an anomaly. Threshold requirements may be imposed for pragmatic reasons alone. As this Court observed in Pires (at para. 35):

For our justice system to operate, trial judges must have some ability to control the course of proceedings before them. One such mechanism is the power to decline to embark upon an evidentiary hearing at the request of one of the parties when that party is unable to show a reasonable likelihood that the hearing can assist in determining the issues before the court.

Quite apart from any such pragmatic considerations, there is good reason to impose a threshold burden on the applicant who alleges that an act of prosecutorial discretion constitutes an abuse of process. Given that such decisions are generally beyond the reach of the court, it is not sufficient to launch an inquiry for an applicant to make a bare allegation of abuse of process. [Emphasis added; paras. 61-62.]

[54] Nixon involved the Crown’s repudiation of a plea agreement. The Court held that the repudiation of a plea agreement was “a rare and exceptional event” that met the evidentiary threshold and justified an inquiry into the propriety of the Crown’s decision: Nixon, at para. 63. Indeed, the evidence in Nixon was that only two other plea agreements had been repudiated in Alberta’s history. As a result, the Court held that

to the extent that the Crown is the only party who is privy to the information, the evidentiary burden shifts to the Crown to enlighten the court on the circumstances and reasons behind its decision to resile from the agreement. That is, the Crown must explain why and how it made the decision not to honour the plea agreement. The ultimate burden of proving abuse of process remains on the applicant and, as discussed earlier, the test is a stringent one. However, if the Crown provides little or no explanation to the court, this factor should weigh heavily in favour of the applicant in successfully making out an abuse of process claim. [para. 63]

[55] Requiring the claimant to establish a proper evidentiary foundation before embarking on an inquiry into the reasons behind the exercise of prosecutorial discretion respects the presumption that prosecutorial discretion is exercised in good faith: Application under s. 83.28 of the Criminal Code (Re), 2004 SCC 42 (CanLII), [2004] 2 S.C.R. 248, at para. 95. It also accords with this Court’s statement in Sriskandarajah, at para. 27, that “prosecutorial authorities are not bound to provide reasons for their decisions, absent evidence of bad faith or improper motives” (emphasis added).

[56] Finally, I note that the content of a Crown policy or guideline may be relevant when a court is considering a challenge to the exercise of prosecutorial discretion. Policy statements or guidelines are capable of informing the debate as to whether a Crown prosecutor’s conduct was appropriate in the particular circumstances. See R. J. Frater, Prosecutorial Misconduct (2009), at p. 259. For example, a decision by a Crown prosecutor that appears to contravene a Crown policy or guideline may provide some evidence that assists the claimant in establishing the threshold evidentiary foundation. However, as the intervener the Director of Public Prosecutions of Canada submits, Crown policies and guidelines do not have the force of law, and cannot themselves be subjected to Charter scrutiny in the abstract: see R. v. Beaudry, 2007 SCC 5 (CanLII), [2007] 1 S.C.R. 190, at para. 45 (discussing police practices manuals).

. R. v. Burke

In R. v. Burke (Ont CA, 2025) the Ontario Court of Appeal considered doctrine regarding prosecutorial discretion:

[11] Prosecutorial discretion: Decisions to withdraw charges are reviewable only for abuse of process on a proper evidentiary foundation; courts do not “[look] behind the exercise of prosecutorial discretion” absent that foundation: Krieger v. Law Society of Alberta, 2002 SCC 65, [2002] 3 S.C.R. 372, at para. 46; R. v. Anderson, 2014 SCC 41, [2014] 2 S.C.R. 167.

. R. v. Varennes

In R. v. Varennes (SCC, 2025) the Supreme Court of Canada considered law that indictable offences should be tried by judge and jury, except where both defendant and Crown agree to judge-only trials [under CCC 469, 471 and 473 - Part XIV 'Jurisdiction']. The court allowed an appeal, here where the Quebec Court of Appeal ordered a new murder trial after the Crown refused to consent to a judge-only trial - finding two exceptions (Charter s.11(b) due to risk of COVID delay and inherent jurisdiction) to this statutory elections rule.

Here the court considers these Charter and inherent jurisdiction exceptions to this statutory judge-jury elections rule:

B. The Trial Judge Had Jurisdiction To Order a Judge-Alone Trial

[37] Under ss. 471 and 473 of the Criminal Code, all trials for offences listed in s. 469, including murder, must take place in a superior court before a judge and jury, unless the accused and Attorney General consent to a trial by judge alone. Section 473(1) states:

473 (1) Notwithstanding anything in this Act, an accused charged with an offence listed in section 469 may, with the consent of the accused and the Attorney General, be tried without a jury by a judge of a superior court of criminal jurisdiction.

[38] The key question in this appeal is: on what basis can a superior court judge order a judge-alone trial for an offence listed in s. 469, notwithstanding the Attorney General’s refusal to consent?[2]

[39] There are two recognized routes through which a trial judge can override a prosecutorial decision. First, superior courts have inherent jurisdiction to “control the process of the court, prevent abuses of process, and ensure the machinery of the court functions in an orderly and effective manner” (R. v. Cunningham, 2010 SCC 10, [2010] 1 S.C.R. 331, at para. 18; see also R. v. Kahsai, 2023 SCC 20, at para. 36). Courts have inherent jurisdiction to review any prosecutorial decision for abuse of process. For decisions falling outside the core of prosecutorial discretion, a court may be able to review on a wider basis (R. v. Anderson, 2014 SCC 41, [2014] 2 S.C.R. 167, at para. 36). Second, judges have a constitutional duty to grant meaningful remedies in response to the violation of Charter rights. Courts can always review a prosecutor’s decision for compliance with the Charter (Anderson, at para. 45). Either framework — inherent jurisdiction or Charter — could allow a superior court to order a judge-alone trial in the circumstances of a given case (see, e.g., R. v. McGregor (1999), 1999 CanLII 2553 (ON CA), 43 O.R. (3d) 455 (C.A.)).

[40] My analysis continues as follows. First, I shall explain why the Attorney General’s decision under s. 473(1) of the Criminal Code is not core prosecutorial discretion and therefore could be reviewed under a superior court’s inherent jurisdiction on a standard less than abuse of process. Second, I shall address how the Crown’s refusal to consent to a judge-alone trial can be overridden by a court using the framework for ordering remedies under s. 24(1) of the Charter in anticipation of a rights violation. I end by applying that framework to the factual findings made by the trial judge.

(1) A Decision Under Section 473(1) Does Not Involve Core Prosecutorial Discretion

[41] The issue debated in this case — and at the appellate court level over three decades — is whether the Crown’s refusal to consent to a judge-alone trial under s. 473(1) lies within the core exclusive jurisdiction of the Attorney General and can only be reviewed under a court’s inherent jurisdiction to remedy an abuse of process. To resolve that debate, I turn to first principles and our jurisprudence.

(a) The Constitutional Role of the Attorney General

[42] The doctrine of core prosecutorial discretion derives from the Attorney General’s constitutional role as Chief Law Officer of the Crown (Krieger v. Law Society of Alberta, 2002 SCC 65, [2002] 3 S.C.R. 372, at para. 45; Ontario v. Criminal Lawyers’ Association of Ontario, 2013 SCC 43, [2013] 3 S.C.R. 3, at para. 34). The Attorney General has exclusive constitutional responsibility to determine whether to bring the weight of the state to bear in criminal prosecutions and is the “first representative of the Sovereign in the courts, in whose name nearly all criminal proceedings are conducted” (J. L. J. Edwards, The Law Officers of the Crown (1964), at p. 2; see also Wilkes v. The King (1768), Wilm. 322, 97 E.R. 123; Krieger, at para. 24; R. v. Power, 1994 CanLII 126 (SCC), [1994] 1 S.C.R. 601, at pp. 621-23).

[43] The provincial Attorneys General act under the provinces’ responsibility under s. 92(14) of the Constitution Act, 1867 for the administration of justice (see, e.g., Act respecting the Ministère de la Justice, CQLR, c. M-19, s. 4; Ministry of the Attorney General Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. M.17, s. 5). In Quebec, the legislature has delegated the prosecutorial aspect of the Chief Law Officer role to the Director of Criminal and Penal Prosecutions, who serves “[u]nder the general authority” of the Attorney General of Quebec as their lawful deputy (Act respecting the Director of Criminal and Penal Prosecutions, CQLR, c. D-9.1.1, s. 1; see also Godbout v. R., 2017 QCCA 569, at para. 13). Crown prosecutors — here the prosecutors of the Director of Criminal and Penal Prosecutions — serve as agents of the Attorney General and bear the delegated role of the Chief Law Officer in individual prosecutions (Criminal Lawyers’ Association, at para. 37).

[44] The Attorneys General exercise their constitutional Chief Law Officer function independently of partisan considerations and make prosecutorial decisions without interference from their cabinet colleagues (see generally Krieger, at para. 30; Miazga v. Kvello Estate, 2009 SCC 51, [2009] 3 S.C.R. 339, at para. 47). Individual Crown prosecutors must also consider the broader public interest throughout the conduct of criminal proceedings (R. v. Thursfield (1838), 8 Car. & P. 269, 173 E.R. 490; R. v. Puddick (1865), 4 F. & F. 497, 176 E.R. 662). In Canada, Rand J. famously explained the Crown’s responsibilities in Boucher v. The Queen, 1954 CanLII 3 (SCC), [1955] S.C.R. 16, at pp. 23-24:

It cannot be over-emphasized that the purpose of a criminal prosecution is not to obtain a conviction, it is to lay before a jury what the Crown considers to be credible evidence relevant to what is alleged to be a crime. Counsel have a duty to see that all available legal proof of the facts is presented: it should be done firmly and pressed to its legitimate strength but it must also be done fairly. The role of prosecutor excludes any notion of winning or losing; his function is a matter of public duty than which in civil life there can be none charged with greater personal responsibility. It is to be efficiently performed with an ingrained sense of the dignity, the seriousness and the justness of judicial proceedings.

More recently, this Court has held that it is a principle of fundamental justice within s. 7 of the Charter that prosecutors must serve the public interest and not act “for the good of the government of the day” (R. v. Cawthorne, 2016 SCC 32, [2016] 1 S.C.R. 983, at paras. 26-28).[45] When a prosecutor exercises discretion, they are presumed to do so in good faith, consistent with their Boucher responsibilities (Application under s. 83.28 of the Criminal Code (Re), 2004 SCC 42, [2004] 2 S.C.R. 248, at para. 95). To respect the separation of powers and prerogatives of the Attorney General, courts must adopt a posture of deference whenever reviewing a decision by a prosecutor or considering making an order that would have the effect of overriding a prosecutor’s decision.

(b) Core Prosecutorial Discretion

[46] Given the distinct constitutional role and responsibilities of the Attorney General as Chief Law Officer, this Court has recognized that certain decisions by Crown prosecutors, as their agents, must be immune from a court’s inherent judicial review jurisdiction except in cases of an abuse of process. These decisions lie within the inherent prosecutorial jurisdiction of the Attorney General and go to “the nature and extent” of the prosecution of criminal offences that come before the judge (Krieger, at para. 47). These decisions constitute “core prosecutorial discretion”.

[47] The use of the word “core” to qualify prosecutorial discretion does not imply that this is a narrow category (Anderson, at para. 41). Rather, core prosecutorial discretion encompasses prosecutorial decisions derived from the core constitutional authority inherent to the Attorney General (Krieger, at paras. 43 and 49). Anderson confirmed Krieger and the criteria that applied to such discretion. Although Anderson suggested that the use of the word “core” had caused some confusion, in my view it helpfully distinguishes discretionary decisions that engage the inherent jurisdiction of the Chief Law Officer from other discretionary decisions that prosecutors make in the conduct of proceedings. Indeed, this Court has continued to refer to “core prosecutorial discretion” since Anderson (see, e.g., Henry v. British Columbia (Attorney General), 2015 SCC 24, [2015] 2 S.C.R. 214, at para. 62, per Moldaver J.; R. v. Nur, 2015 SCC 15, [2015] 1 S.C.R. 773, at para. 161, per Moldaver J.; Ontario (Attorney General) v. Clark, 2021 SCC 18, [2021] 1 S.C.R. 607, at paras. 126-30, per Côté J.). Parliament has codified some core prosecutorial decisions in statute (Anderson, at para. 44). But what qualifies these decisions as core prosecutorial discretion is not their statutory nature, but their connection to the Attorney General’s inherent constitutional function.

[48] In Krieger, this Court wrote that what unites instances of core prosecutorial discretion “is that they involve the ultimate decisions as to whether a prosecution should be brought, continued or ceased, and what the prosecution ought to be for” (para. 47 (emphasis in original); see also R. v. Nixon, 2011 SCC 34, [2011] 2 S.C.R. 566, at para. 30). Both Krieger and Anderson note that core prosecutorial discretionary decisions impact the “nature and extent” of the criminal proceedings. They confirm that such decisions do not encompass those that impact how the proceedings will be conducted (see, e.g., Anderson, at para. 60, citing R. v. Auclair, 2014 SCC 6, [2014] 1 S.C.R. 83). Rather, they involve decisions that fall outside the judiciary’s role in adjudicating matters on their merits. Anderson provides a list of examples of core prosecutorial discretion: whether to repudiate a plea agreement, to pursue a dangerous offender application, to prefer a direct indictment, to charge multiple offences, to negotiate a plea, to proceed summarily or by indictment, and to initiate an appeal (para. 44). Anderson also determined that a decision on whether to provide a notice that would increase penal jeopardy is an instance of core prosecutorial discretion (para. 63).

[49] What is common to these examples is that they directly impact the nature and extent of the criminal jeopardy to which the accused will be subjected. These decisions are within the core constitutional jurisdiction of the Attorney General acting as the Chief Law Officer. Judicial deference to these decisions therefore respects the separation of powers and the constitutional role of the Attorney General (Krieger, at paras. 45-46). It also has the effect of serving the public good (Miazga, at para. 47).

[50] While core prosecutorial discretion demands strong deference, it does not demand absolute immunity from review.

[51] This Court has long recognized that the actions of the executive are subject to judicial review. This principle is most often invoked in judicial review of the executive’s exercise of authority delegated by the legislature. But this Court has also held that the judiciary can review the executive’s exercise of its inherent constitutional authority and prerogatives and order remedies for arbitrary, abusive, or unconstitutional acts (R. v. Jewitt, 1985 CanLII 47 (SCC), [1985] 2 S.C.R. 128, at pp. 131-37; Nelles v. Ontario, 1989 CanLII 77 (SCC), [1989] 2 S.C.R. 170; Air Canada v. British Columbia (Attorney General), 1986 CanLII 2 (SCC), [1986] 2 S.C.R. 539, at p. 545; Canada (Prime Minister) v. Khadr, 2010 SCC 3, [2010] 1 S.C.R. 44, at paras. 36-37).

[52] The abuse of process doctrine reflects the necessarily high threshold for the judiciary to invoke its inherent jurisdiction and intrude on the Attorney General’s core prosecutorial discretion.

[53] The doctrine of abuse of process applies in various fields of law and “engages the inherent power of the court to prevent misuse of its proceedings in a way that would be manifestly unfair to a party or would in some way bring the administration of justice into disrepute” (Saskatchewan (Environment) v. Métis Nation – Saskatchewan, 2025 SCC 4, at paras. 33-36). Courts must remedy an abuse of process because to allow trials to proceed in such circumstances “would tarnish the integrity of the court” (R. v. Conway, 1989 CanLII 66 (SCC), [1989] 1 S.C.R. 1659, at p. 1667).

[54] In the criminal law context, abuse of process targets egregious conduct that threatens an accused’s right to a fair trial or undermines the integrity of the justice system (R. v. Brunelle, 2024 SCC 3, at para. 27; R. v. Babos, 2014 SCC 16, [2014] 1 S.C.R. 309, at para. 31). This Court has called the threshold for finding an abuse of process in a criminal case “notoriously high” and stated that “successful reliance upon the doctrine will be extremely rare” (Nur, at para. 94; R. v. Mahalingan, 2008 SCC 63, [2008] 3 S.C.R. 316, at para. 42). That said, abuse of process can exist even absent prosecutorial misconduct. I agree with the intervener the Attorney General of Ontario that this Court has recognized abuses of process in situations of both improper intent and abusive effects (I.F., at paras. 12-13; see also R. v. Keyowski, 1988 CanLII 74 (SCC), [1988] 1 S.C.R. 657; Babos, at para. 37).

[55] In sum, where the Attorneys General or their agents make decisions that directly affect the nature and extent of the criminal jeopardy a person may face, these constitute decisions of core prosecutorial discretion and a court may not interfere under its inherent jurisdiction except to remedy an abuse of process.

[56] In addition to decisions directly affecting the jeopardy of an accused, prosecutors make a wide variety of discretionary decisions every day that do not fall within core prosecutorial discretion. Krieger and Anderson recognized that prosecutors make decisions relating to “tactics or conduct before the court”, which cover a wide range of decisions within the proceedings, including which charges to prioritize for limited court dates, what witnesses to call, what questions to ask, and how to present an opening or closing address — decisions that do not directly change the criminal jeopardy an accused may face (Krieger, at para. 47; Anderson, at paras. 57-61; see also R. v. Jolivet, 2000 SCC 29, [2000] 1 S.C.R. 751, at paras. 14 and 21). The term “tactics” does not mean that these discretionary decisions are unimportant. Rather, Krieger and Anderson used “tactics or conduct before the court” to reflect that these discretionary decisions do not attract the same separation of powers imperative as core prosecutorial discretion, since they do not tread on the core of the constitutional role of the Chief Law Officer.

[57] While courts may review or override non-core prosecutorial discretion on a less demanding standard than an abuse of process, deference will generally still be warranted (Anderson, at paras. 59-61). Like any litigant, the Crown will necessarily know many circumstances outside the purview of the trial judge. As made clear by this Court in Boucher, the Crown must use its knowledge to act in the public interest. And, as a practical matter, intrusive judicial oversight of prosecutorial decision making would grind the criminal justice system to a halt (Smythe v. The Queen, 1971 CanLII 831 (SCC), [1971] S.C.R. 680, at p. 686; R. v. Beare, 1988 CanLII 126 (SCC), [1988] 2 S.C.R. 387, at pp. 410-11). Because these non-core decisions cover a broad range — from the everyday issues that form part of a litigant’s conduct of a trial to decisions authorized under statute — the standard for a judge to override a Crown decision will vary with the circumstances. The precise standard in a given case will depend on the nature of the Crown conduct, the presence or absence of statutory authority, the impact on trial fairness, and any other relevant interest (see, e.g., R. v. Cook, 1997 CanLII 392 (SCC), [1997] 1 S.C.R. 1113, at paras. 61-62; R. v. Samaniego, 2022 SCC 9, [2022] 1 S.C.R. 71, at paras. 19-26; R. v. S.G.T., 2010 SCC 20, [2010] 1 S.C.R. 688, at paras. 36-37). As I shall explain, the fact that a non-core prosecutorial decision is made pursuant to statutory authority will require that deference feature prominently in the analysis.

(c) A Decision Under Section 473(1) of the Criminal Code Does Not Fall Within Core Prosecutorial Discretion

[58] This is a question of first instance for our Court. For at least 30 years, appellate courts have differed on whether a Crown’s decision to refuse to proceed by judge alone — under s. 473(1) or similar provisions — engages core prosecutorial discretion, and on which standard to apply when reviewing the decision. Some cases have clearly characterized a Crown’s refusal to consent as core prosecutorial discretion (R. v. E. (L.) (1994), 1994 CanLII 1785 (ON CA), 94 C.C.C. (3d) 228 (Ont. C.A.); R. v. Ng, 2003 ABCA 1, 173 C.C.C. (3d) 349; R. v. Effert, 2011 ABCA 134, 276 C.C.C. (3d) 487; R. v. Matthews, 2022 ABCA 115, 41 Alta. L.R. (7th) 30; Lufiau (2022)). Others have not characterized the decision and have simply stated that the threshold for overriding the Crown’s decision will be high (R. v. Khan, 2007 ONCA 779, 230 O.A.C. 179, at paras. 13-16; R. v. Saleh, 2013 ONCA 742, 303 C.C.C. (3d) 431). Still others have held that the decision falls outside of core prosecutorial discretion altogether (R. v. R. (J.S.), 2012 ONCA 568, 112 O.R. (3d) 81, at para. 127; St-Pierre v. R., 2016 QCCA 545, at para. 25). All have recognized that the standard is demanding.

[59] In this case, the Court of Appeal followed the line of jurisprudence that characterized the Crown’s refusal to consent to a judge-alone trial as core prosecutorial discretion. The court then asked whether the decision was an abuse of process because of its direct or anticipated effects on the right of the accused (C.A. reasons, at para. 27). It concluded that the trial judge erred in law by characterizing the decision as falling outside of core prosecutorial discretion and by using a broader standard of review than abuse of process (para. 24).

[60] With respect, I disagree. A decision under s. 473(1) affects the identity of the fact finder and the mode of trial. It does not impact the nature and extent of the criminal jeopardy facing the accused. It relates to how the proceedings will be conducted and not to whether a prosecution will be brought, or what the prosecution will be for. While the jury system is obviously a key feature of our criminal justice system, a trial by judge alone or a trial by judge and jury are two comparable routes to a fair trial of the charges laid by the prosecutor. As such, the Attorney General’s decision under s. 473(1) does not engage their core, inherent constitutional role as Chief Law Officer of the Crown.

[61] However, the Attorney General’s decision is made pursuant to statute, which engages the separation of powers imperative of parliamentary sovereignty (Canada (Attorney General) v. Power, 2024 SCC 26, at para. 49). Parliament has exclusive jurisdiction to make policy decisions relating to criminal procedure (Criminal Lawyers’ Association, at para. 28; Constitution Act, 1867, s. 91(27)). Courts must be respectful of Parliament’s legislative decision, made pursuant to its constitutional authority, to vest these responsibilities in prosecutors and the accused rather than the courts.

[62] This said, courts have a constitutional duty to review the executive’s exercise of delegated authority for legality and compliance with the Constitution (Immeubles Port Louis Ltée v. Lafontaine (Village), 1991 CanLII 82 (SCC), [1991] 1 S.C.R. 326, at p. 360; Roncarelli v. Duplessis, 1959 CanLII 50 (SCC), [1959] S.C.R. 121, at p. 140). Further, statutes cannot abrogate the inherent jurisdiction of a superior court, which includes jurisdiction to ensure that trials operate fairly and efficiently (Reference re Code of Civil Procedure (Que.), art. 35, 2021 SCC 27, [2021] 2 S.C.R. 291, at paras. 65 and 68, per Côté and Martin JJ., at paras. 232 and 234, per Wagner C.J., and at para. 301, per Abella J.). At a minimum, courts can still review decisions taken by prosecutors under delegated statutory authority for abuse of process.

[63] Here, Parliament determined that the mode of trial would be judge and jury, unless both the accused and the Attorney General consent to judge alone. It is not appropriate in this case to decide generally how a superior court, acting under its inherent jurisdiction, should approach trial fairness when faced with a statutory decision by the Crown that does not fall within the core of prosecutorial discretion. The parties and interveners focused their arguments on whether s. 473(1) engaged core prosecutorial discretion. The Crown made no submissions on what standard to apply if the decision fell outside the core. The appellant relied on the trial judge’s selection of “unfair or unreasonable” as the basis to override the decision.

[64] I need not decide what precise standard would be required for a court to review, under inherent jurisdiction, such a non-core prosecutorial decision made pursuant to statute, in the absence of full argument from the parties, given that the remedial jurisdiction under the Charter also applies in this case.

[65] In addition to inherent jurisdiction, the appellant invoked s. 24(1) of the Charter in his motion. The trial judge’s reasons for ordering a judge-alone trial related primarily to the risk of unreasonable delay.

[66] Delay that does not constitute an abuse of process can still violate s. 11(b) of the Charter. A trial judge’s discretion to remedy unreasonable delay under s. 24(1) of the Charter is therefore broader than it is under inherent jurisdiction (see generally R. v. Rahey, 1987 CanLII 52 (SCC), [1987] 1 S.C.R. 588, at pp. 635-36, per La Forest J.; Law Society of Saskatchewan v. Abrametz, 2022 SCC 29, [2022] 2 S.C.R. 220, at paras. 45-49). I thus turn now to the framework for a trial judge’s remedial jurisdiction under s. 24(1) of the Charter.